The antiquity of the cities

CHAPTER I

The Evidence for the Antiquity of the Phœnician Cities, Against Those Who Claim That Civilisation Arose First in Egypt or in Mesopotamia

Before I proceed to the succession of the kings, I must establish the antiquity of the Phœnician cities against those who, for reasons of national pride, assert that civilisation began elsewhere.

The Egyptians claim that their land is the oldest, pointing to the pyramids of Giza and the tombs of Abydos. The Mesopotamians—whether Sumerians, Akkadians, or Babylonians—point to the ziggurats of Ur and the temples of Uruk. Both claims have some merit. But neither Egypt nor Mesopotamia can claim priority over the Levantine coast.

Of Byblus. The city of Byblus—called Gubla in the Akkadian tongue and Gebal in the Hebrew scriptures—is, by the testimony of its own ruins, among the oldest continuously inhabited settlements on the earth. Excavations conducted by the French archaeologist Maurice Dunand over nearly fifty years (1926–1975) revealed occupation layers extending back to the Neolithic period, approximately 8800 to 7000 years before the common era. By the fourth millennium, Byblus had developed into an extensive urban settlement with monumental architecture, including the temple of Baalat Gebal, the Lady of Byblus.

The Egyptian name for Byblus, kbnj, appears in hieroglyphic records dating to the reign of Pharaoh Sneferu of the Fourth Dynasty, approximately 2600 years before the common era. Sneferu's records acknowledge Byblus as a trading partner from which Egypt obtained cedar wood—a commodity that the Nile valley lacks and that the Phœnician mountains supplied in abundance. The Egyptians did not conquer Byblus. They traded with Byblus. The relationship was between equals, and it endured for millennia.

The earliest known Phœnician alphabetic inscription—the sarcophagus of King Ahiram of Byblus (KAI 1)—was discovered at Byblus in 1923 by Pierre Montet. The sarcophagus bears a dedication in fully developed Phœnician script, and most scholars date it to approximately 1000 years before the common era, though some, including the paleographer Edward M. Cook, have argued persuasively for a date as early as the thirteenth century. The sarcophagus was found in Tomb V of the royal necropolis at Byblus, and associated grave goods included alabaster vases bearing the cartouche of Ramesses II (r. 1279–1213 BCE), which supports the earlier dating.

Byblus, then, was a walled city with a literate scribal class, a temple, and a king at least as early as the Egyptian New Kingdom. Its origins reach back into the Stone Age. No Greek city can claim comparable antiquity. Mycenae, the earliest Greek centre of note, flourished no earlier than the sixteenth century before the common era—more than a thousand years after Byblus was trading with the pharaohs.

Of Tyre. The city of Tyre—in Phœnician, Ṣūr, "the Rock"—was, according to Herodotus (2.44), founded 2,300 years before his visit in approximately 450 BCE. This yields a foundation date of approximately 2750 BCE. Herodotus reports that the priests of the temple of Melqart told him that the temple and the city were established at the same time. Herodotus is not always reliable, but he had no reason to invent this detail, and his account of what he saw at Tyre is detailed and sober.

Archaeological investigation of the ancient island of Tyre is rendered difficult by millennia of continuous occupation, but the mainland settlement of Ushu—Palaetyrus, "Old Tyre"—has yielded remains from the Early Bronze Age. The city's strategic position on a rocky island just off the coast made it nearly impregnable to land assault, a fact that would shape its entire history.

Of Sidon. Sidon—in Phœnician, Ṣīdūn—appears in the execration texts of Egypt, curses inscribed on pottery and figurines against the enemies of the pharaoh, dating to the early second millennium before the common era. The city is described in the Amarna letters of the fourteenth century as a significant coastal power. The name Sidon appears repeatedly in the Hebrew scriptures, often as a metonym for the whole Phœnician coast. The archaeological record of Sidon is less complete than that of Byblus, largely because the modern city of Saida stands directly atop the ancient site, but excavations have confirmed occupation from the Early Bronze Age.

Of Berytus. Berytus, the city of Sanchuniathon himself, appears in the genealogy of Book I as Beruth, the wife of Elioun. Archaeological evidence confirms settlement at Berytus from the Early Bronze Age, and the city appears in the Amarna letters as Biruta, ruled by a king named Ammunira, who corresponded with Pharaoh Akhenaten. The modern city of Beirut stands on the ancient site, which has limited excavation, but the evidence is sufficient to establish Berytus as one of the oldest cities of the coast.

Conclusion of the Matter of Antiquity. The claim that civilisation arose first in Egypt or Mesopotamia is not supported by the full archaeological record. The Levantine coast—and Byblus in particular—was the site of urban settlements, monumental architecture, and long-distance trade while the Nile valley and the Euphrates plain were still consolidating their first kingdoms. The Phœnician cities did not borrow civilisation from Egypt or Mesopotamia. They developed it in parallel, and in some respects—most notably the invention of the alphabet—they surpassed both.

The Greeks, whose own urban civilisation began a millennium or more later, are in no position to dispute this. The Hebrews, whose Jerusalem was a modest highland village when Byblus and Tyre were already ancient, are in no position to claim priority. The record of the stones is clear.

Sources for Chapter I: Maurice Dunand, Fouilles de Byblos (1939–1973); Pierre Montet, Byblos et l'Égypte (1928); Edward M. Cook, "On the Linguistic Dating of the Phoenician Ahiram Inscription (KAI 1)," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 53 (1994); Herodotus, Histories 2.44; The Amarna Letters, EA 68–95 (Rib-Hadda of Byblus), EA 146–155 (Abi-Milku of Tyre), EA 141–143 (Ammunira of Berytus).